How Secure is Your Job?

Now for a little fun. I was talking with a friend a while back, and he told me it would be fun to compare the modes of death of Roman Emperors (sounds like your idea of fun, doesn't it?). So, I decided to put a list together and see how things added up. The final tally was 11 for natural deaths and 16 for unnatural deaths; not what I would call job security.

Some disclaimers are in order. Unnatural deaths include murder and suicide, both which I have distinguished in my list. I consider natural deaths to be anything other than murder or suicide, be it old age, illness or injury. There is controversy surrounding the deaths of some emperors, most noticeably Claudius, so here I stick with the common belief that he was murdered. Also, my list ends at 235 CE for various reasons. 235 CE saw the end of the Severan Dynasty and marked a fundamental shift in the Roman world. The next fifty years would see over 20 emperors propped up by the military. From a political view point, the era was one of chaos and the Rome that would emerged in 284 CE was considerably different than the Principate of the preceding centuries. Also, cutting the list off at 235 CE gives me the opportunity to write a post at a later date comparing the "lifespan" of emperors of the Principate and the Late Empire.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE) - natural
Tiberus (14-37) - natural
Gaius (37-41) - murder
Claudius(41-54) - murder
Nero (54-68)- suicide

Civil War of 69
Galba (68-69) - murder
Otho (69) - suicide
Vitellius (69) - murder

Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian (69-79) - natural
Titus (79-81) - natural
Domitian (81-96) - murder

Nervan-Antonian Dynasty
Nerva (96-98) - natural
Trajan (98-117) - natural
Hadrian (117-138)- natural
Antoninus Pius (138-161) - natural
Lucius Verus (co-ruler w/Marcus) (161-169) - natural
Marcus Aurelius (161-180) - natural
Commodus (180-193) - murder

Civil War of 193
Pertinax (193) - murder
Didius Julianus (193) - murder

Severan Dynasty (with usurpers)
Septimius Severus (193-211) - natural
Geta (co-ruler w/Caracalla) (211) - murder
Caracalla (211-217) - murder
Macrinus (217-218) - murder
Diadumenian (co-ruler w/Macrinus) (217-128) - murder
Elagabalus (218-222) - murder
Alexander Severus (222-235) - murder

Natural - 11
Unnatural - 16

Vive la France

When you think of Ancient Rome you probably picture the Colosseum or perhaps the Pantheon, right? What about the Arc de triomphe d'Orange or the Théâtre antique d'Orange? Not ringing a bell? How about the Maison Carrée or the Arèna de Nîmes? Still nothing? When one has a desire to see the physical remains of the Roman Empire, the best place to go is not necessarily Italy. France, particularly South East France, has some of the best preserved Roman architecture you'll find anywhere. First, a little history. In the beginning, the Romans had a uneasy relationship with their Northern neighbors. Though mocked by the Romans, the Gauls were also respected for their bravery and hardiness in battle. The Romans always had a eye turned toward those "hairy Gauls," especially after the sack of Rome in 387 BCE. It wasn't until the late 2nd century BCE that Rome intervened in Gaul and set up it's first permanent provincial holding there. The following century saw Julius Caesar's bloody conquest of the rest of Gaul. Gaul then began the process of "Romanization," but was always a troublesome region for the Romans.

Today, France has some of the best preserved Roman architecture. Both Nîmes and Arles have amphitheaters that, though not as massive as the Colosseum in Rome, are certainly more complete (though both have been restored). The Roman theater in Orange is a wonderfully preserved example of that type of architecture, and like Roman theaters throughout the Mediterranean, it is still in use. The Maison Carrée in Nîmes started its life in 16 BCE as a temple dedicated to Gaius and Lucius Caesar and today is the most complete Roman temple found anywhere. The more practical side of the Romans is also evident in France. There are no shortage of Roman bridges from Roman times, including the Pont de Sommières, the Pont Flavien and the Pont des Marchands, just to name a few. We can't forget aqueducts since France is home to one of the most famous examples, the Pont du Gard. The exact date of the Pont du Gard's construction is a matter of debate, but it probably was constructed sometime between the late 1st century BCE and the mid 1st century CE. The Pont du Gard has long been a symbol of Roman Gaul and is probably the most famous Roman ruin in France.

Northern France can't be neglected and many wonderful sites are still to be found there. Lillebonne, Sens and Grand are just a few of the cities that have Roman theaters or amphitheaters. Even Paris has the small remains of its amphitheater, the Arènes de Lutèce, which is now a public park. The sites listed above are just a sampling of the Roman sites in France and there are dozens if not hundreds more ruins scattered around the countryside, not to mention what is buried underneath modern cities. From England to the Euphrates you can find physical remains of Roman civilization and it's always important to remember that there is more to Ancient Rome that the Colosseum.

• Roman France (from the NY Times)
  

Hadrian's Villa Gets the Limelight

The Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138 CE) left us many monuments for which he is remembered. The most famous of course being the Pantheon, but he also left us with the Temple of Venus and Roma and Hadrian's Wall, to name a few. Those monuments were all meant for the public in some degree, but one of his most stunning architectural creations was meant for himself. Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli (Roman Tibur) was built by Hadrian as his own personal sanctuary away from Rome. Make no mistake, being emperor was a busy job and we can imagine Hadrian's Villa teaming with servants, courtiers and advisers, but compared to the hustle and bustle of Rome, the villa was certainly a place where Hadrian could relax.

Hadrian's Villa not only featured advanced architecture (the famous 'pumpkin' domes criticized by Apollodorus) but rich works of art as well. In building his magnificent country retreat, Hadrian wanted to recreated some of the many places he had traveled to throughout the empire. The huge pool was called the Canopus was named after a site in Egypt on the Nile and the copies of Greek statuary, especially the caryatids, recall his love for all things Greek. The villa is in ruins today, but from the ruins and art works found we can imagine what a breathtaking place Hadrian's Villa once was.

A new exhibit at Hadrian's Villa will be showing some of the hundreds of artifacts found there over the years. Showing those artifacts in the context of where they were found is a great way to educate the public about the ancient world. I know I've said it a thousand times, but without context, artifacts loose a lot of their meaning. I think this exhibit is a unique opportunity to showcase ancient artifacts in their original ancient setting. The Mediterranean world is lucky enough to be able to put on such a unique exhibit and I look forward to seeing more exhibits like this in the future.

• Tivoli Fetes its Ancient Past
  

Naples Museum Overhauls Roman Fresco Exhibit

When Pompeii and the other Roman sites on the Gulf of Naples were destroyed in 79 CE, posterity was given a unique gift. No were else was Roman civilization sealed in a "time capsule" to the extent that Pompeii was. Being sealed for over 1500 years, Pompeii and its related sites preserved much that was lost elsewhere in the Roman world. The most famous artifacts from the area are the hundreds of walls paintings found in situ. The importance of other artifacts can not be ignored and contribute immense knowledge to our understanding of Roman society, but the frescos are by far the most well know to the general public. Random (and limited) examples of wall painting have been found throughout the Roman Empire, but those few pieces pale in comparison to the shear magnitude of paintings found in Pompeii. The study and appreciation of those paintings has been going on since the 18th century and still today those paintings offer us a rare glimpse into the colorful world that was ancient Rome.

The Naples National Archaeological Museum (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) houses a great quantity of frescos removed from Pompeii and the Gulf of Naples area. Many of these paintings were removed to protect them, but many were also removed long ago for the sake of profit. Today, many of the paintings left in situ at Pompeii are badly deteriorating, so it is my opinion that the removal, though damaging the walls that once held them, was an appropriate thing to do (this is a complicated issue which I will discuss in a future post). After a 10 year renovation, the Naples National Archaeological Museum has completely revamped it's Roman frescos section. The new exhibition of frescos apparently seeks to place the paintings in their historical context, which I think is great. The paintings will also be organized by their "style," based on Mau's four style categorization. I get excited any time Roman art is shown to the public, but especially when it is done in a way that emphasizes the importance of art in the framework of culture and history.

• Pompeii Frescos On Show In Naples
  

Roman Bowl Found in London

There is something magical about the shapes and colors of Roman glass that has always fascinated me. Blown glass, and especially mould-blown glass, allowed the Romans to manufacture glass vessels in some very unique shapes. Glass blowing was invented in Phoenicia in the 1st century BCE, and it was quickly realized that the new technique presented an unlimited range of potential designs (see photos below). Glass products spread throughout the Roman Empire and became extremely popular. The variety of shapes and colors probably helped make glass ware fashionable, but it was glass that imitated rock crystal that was most widely sought. One beautiful technique employed by Roman glass makers was millefiori. This technique used multi-colored glass rods from which cross sections were cut and placed side by side, creating designs that resembled flowers, hence the name.

Archaeologists at a Roman graveyard in London have unearthed an amazing find, a magnificent Roman millefiori bowl found in the grave of a wealthy Londinium resident. The bowl, which dates from the 3rd century CE, was found broken, but complete. It has recently been pieced back together and the final result is beautiful. The bowl is of a typical Roman shape and is made of hundreds of glass rod sections pieced together. This is apparently the first such artifact to be found in Western Europe, so this find is quite important. Roman period archaeology in London is rare, since the city has been continuously occupied since antiquity. The site were the bowl was found was once covered by Victorian houses, which were leveled in WWII, giving archaeologists a unique opportunity to dig in London. This bowl gives us only a hint of what treasures are still buried under London and other modern European cities.

• Unique Roman glass dish found at London grave site
• Roman Glass 1
  
• Roman Glass 2
• Roman Glass 3
• Roman Glass 4
  

Where Have All the Artifacts Gone?

It seems that every time I look at the news lately, there's an article about antiquities and illegal dealings. The most recent news I've found is that the Cleveland Museum of Art will be returning a whopping 14 artifacts to Italy. The artifacts were allegedly all stolen from Southern Italy, but the museum seemingly acquired them innocently. Last November, The Cleveland Museum of Art signed an accord with Italian authorities which guaranteed the return of the artifacts. I wrote about Cleveland's Apollo Sauroktonos and the debate about its provenience, but that statue is not one of the artifacts being returned. This story has it all; an American museum and the Italian government getting along, the willful return of known stolen artifacts and an agreement to conduct long term loans between Cleveland and Italy.

Sounds great, right? Returning stolen artifacts to their rightful owners is the right thing to do, but I'm forced to ask about the fate of these artifacts. Italy, with it's mile long list of museums, has more Greek and Roman artifacts than it knows what to do with. Where are these Cleveland artifacts going to be housed and who is going to study them? Italy owns them, fare and square, but don't they currently have a good home in Cleveland? If the artifacts are going to be returned to Italy and displayed and studied, I'm definitely on board with their repatriation. But what if these artifacts are put in a box in the basement of some museum. I think Italy would be the first to admit that it doesn't need another red-figure krater. Would it have been possible for Italy to take official ownership of these artifacts while letting Cleveland "borrow" them? These are all very complicated questions and the answers are not black and white. Please don't get the idea that I am against the return of illegally acquired artifacts, because I most certainly am not. I am concerned about how these artifacts are used, though, and I want to make sure that everyone has the chance to view them and learn from them.

• Cleveland Museum of Art will return tainted antiquities to Italy
  

Bronzes Find New Home at the Getty

In my last post, I discussed the J. Paul Getty Museum's return of a Roman fresco to Italy. The past few years have seen a multitude of illegally acquired artifacts returned to their country of origin and it is a process that I applaud and encourage. But what about American museums? Are they doomed to be picked clean by European institutions who claim the rights to their artifacts? Despite the fears of many, the answer is no. Many museums house artifacts that, according to UNESCO accords, are the legitimate property of the museums that house them. Many such artifacts were purchases in the 19th century and early 20th century, and though we may disapprove of such sales now, at the time they were bought legally.

Returning artifacts to their country of origin is great, but when American museums where ironing out the details of such agreements, both sides decided that an atmosphere of cooperation was essential. Being a scholar means sharing information with your peers and the public, and without cooperation both at home and abroad, the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge suffers. Countries of origin have no desire to close American museums and take their artifacts, and a new loan to the Getty is proof of the renewed cooperation across the Atlantic. The National Archaeological Museum in Naples is loaning the Getty two nearly life size bronze statues found at Pompeii. Large bronze statuary is extremely rare, for reasons I have talked about before, and the fact that Italy is letting the Getty house these artifacts proves that there is a new found trust between American institutions and those in Europe. Let's hope that such actions encourage more loaning of artifacts, because the only way to advance the fields are archaeology, history and art history is openly share knowledge and resources.

• Getty gets first loan of antiquities from Italy
  

Getty to Return Roman Fresco

The past few years have been sad for museums and archaeologists, but things are looking up. After many high profile scandals rocked the world of antiquities trade, things seem to finally be heading in the right direction. Museums now are ceasing their shady dealings and are being open about where their artifacts came from and how they got them. Not that the problem of looting is solved of course, but every small step helps in ending the practice. When a looter digs up an artifact and sells it on the black market, everyone looses. The country of origin looses a small piece of its history and archaeologists loose valuable information about the context of that artifact. The latter by far has the biggest impact because every shred of information regarding context, no matter how small, helps us better understand history as a whole. It is infuriating and frustrating that looting happens at all, but as long as there is a market for stolen artifacts, the practice will continue.

The J. Paul Getty Museum in California is no stranger to scandal. Marion True and her alleged dealings in looted artifacts is a stain on the whole archaeological community as well as the Getty itself. The facts about what Ms. True did and didn't do are complicated and I'm not going to pass judgment on her here. What I will say, though, is that her high profile court case has led to many positive changes in museums around the country. Many "hot" artifacts from the Getty (and many other institutions) have been returned to their country of origin, which is were they belong. I fully support museums from around the world housing artifacts from other countries, as long as those artifacts were acquired legally and are professionally studied. Returning artifacts to their country of origin can't give us back lost information regarding context, but at least the artifacts are returned to their rightful owners. The Getty recently agreed to repatriate a Roman wall painting, not because of international pressure, as has been the case in the past, but because of changed attitudes at the institution. The Getty apparently saw newly published images of another repatriated fresco and realized that the fragment they had was from the same wall. I applaud the decision to send the fresco back to Italy and hope that this positive step is a sign of continued and expanded cooperation between American museums and museums throughout the world.

• Getty to Return Ancient Fresco to Italy
  

The Many Faces of Julius Caesar

Caesar - the mere name conjures up images of power, prestige and arrogance. Julius Caesar has never failed to capture the hearts and minds of the public, whether it be in ancient times or today. During and directly after his life, Caesar was both revered and hated by many. Those who revered him would eventually prevail, and it was his name and "divine" lineage that helped solidify Octavian's position in the latter half of the 1st century BCE. Octavian, who would later be given the name Augustus, took Caesar's family name and exploited the fact that he was now the son (adopted) of the divine Julius. The name Caesar would eventually loose its family connection with the death of Nero and would hence forth be more of a title of office. Julius Caesar faded from the public view during the middle ages until his story was revived by Shakespeare in his famous play. Today, Caesar is a house hold name, though many probably don't know his full story or the amazing role he played in shaping Rome's destiny

Julius Caesar has always been one of my favorite characters from Roman history. The story of his life and his rise to power is full of drama and intrigue and his personal desire for success was astonishing. Caesar possessed many rare talents that made him stand out from the crowd, and putting those talents to use made him continually victorious against overwhelming odds. Caesar the man is perhaps not so noble as Caesar the myth, though, and it's important never to look at history through rose colored glasses. For all his famous clemency, Caesar started a war in Gaul out of a desire for personal glory. The Gallic Wars probably cost over one million lives and led to widespread destruction. Caesar also launched the Roman world into civil war to suit his own ends and protect his own interests. Arguing the pros and cons of Caesar's exploits has been discussed in multiple volumes, and I won't try to justify or condemn his actions here.

So, why all this talk of Caesar. A new museum exhibit, of course. "Caesar: The man, the deeds, the myth" is now showing in Italy at the Chiostro del Bramante. According the to the New York Times article below, the exhibit is quite promising. Far too often the public gets the facts wrong about history, and they can't necessarily be blamed. Gladiator and HBO's Rome are sensational, but tend to distort facts. Movies and shows like those are necessary to spark people's interest, but it's up to scholars and museums to make clear the fact vs. the fiction. This new Caesar exhibit has a wide range of artifacts spanning Caesar's career, and it is always exciting to see such exhibits brought to the public. I hope this exhibit shows a balanced picture of Caesar though, for to understand the man is to understand all aspects of him, both good and bad.

• Tracing a Roman Ruler's Life and Legacy
  

Catch of the Day

Bronze statuary was as ubiquitous in the Classical world as Starbucks are today. Ever since people began to mix copper and tin to create bronze, people shaped that bronze into useful tools or decorative ornaments. Think of bronze as the ancient equivalent to plastic if you will. Weapons, armor, statues, lamps, plumbing and everything in between was fashioned out of bronze in the Greek and Roman world. From an archaeological standpoint, bronze can be a big deal. Bronze coins and fibulae are extremely common finds and can serve as time markers, but bronze statuary is very rare and when one is found it can yield much information. In late antiquity and the middles ages, bronze (in particular bronze statuary) was melted down and turned into something considered more useful at the time. As a result, ancient bronze statues are extremely rare today and any find can greatly increase our knowledge about ancient art.

Just a few days ago in Greece, a fisherman pulled a 2,200 year old bronze horseman out of the water. He did the right thing and contacted authorities immediately. Study of the statue is obviously just beginning, so we'll have to wait quite a while before any detailed information about it's significance is published. Any bronze statue found today is bound to divulge some information that either confirms or reshapes our current hypotheses in regards to art and archaeology. I hope that this statue is not an isolated find and leads to the discovery of a shipwreck. Many such statues that have been pulled from the sea have led to the discovery of new shipwreck sites. Some very famous statues, though, such as the "Victorious Youth" were isolated finds and no subsequent shipwrecks have been found. It is hypothesized that isolated statues such as this were perhaps thrown overboard in a storm. Whether the bronze horseman is an isolated find or not, I'm looking forward to the stories it has to tell about the ancient world.

• Greek fisherman nets 2,200-year-old bronze statue